INTRODUCTION

Fosnot (1996) refers to constructivism as "a theory about knowledge and learning." According to constructivist theory, knowledge is "temporary, developmental, nonobjective, internally constructed, and socially and culturally mediated." Fosnot presents learning as "a self-regulatory process of struggling with the conflict between existing personal models of the world and discrepant new insights." Learners construct new models which are refined through "cooperative social activity, discourse, and debate" (p. ix). Such a theory of knowledge and learning has significant implications for teaching. It changes the dynamics of the traditional classroom by empowering the learner as the focus and architect of the learning process while redefining the role of the instructor to be a guide and helper rather than the source and conduit of knowledge. Constructivism has become an educational theory of choice for many within modern educational institutions. Gaining additional insight into this theory is the purpose of this document.

CONSTRUCTIVISM DEFINED

The foundational premise of constructivism is that learners actively construct their own knowledge by anchoring new information to preexisting knowledge (Strommen & Lincoln, 1992). Learning does not occur in isolation, either. Learners interact with the knowledge, the learning environment, and with other learners (Dershem, 1996). These interactions alter the knowledge and change the learners perceptions of that knowledge; so what is learned is not based just on an individual's past experiences, but on the collective experiences of the learning community.

Constructivist learners are active. Within the environment of constructivism knowledge is viewed "as something created, discovered, and experienced" (Snyder, Bolin, & Zumwalt, 1992). Students have the opportunity "to take personal responsibility, exercise initiative, and be in control in the instructional setting through a variety of learning experiences" (p. 415). According to Applebee and Purves, constructivists view "knowledge as an active construction built up by the individual acting within a social context that shapes and constrains that knowledge but does not determine it in an absolute sense" (p. 738). The idea of learner control is essential to constructivism because constructivist learning relies on the learner doing the work of learning (Dershem, 1996). Constructivist teaching empowers the learner to construct and interpret his/her understanding of knowledge and reality.

CONSTRUCTIVISM AS A THEORY

Constructivism is anchored on cognitive psychology but from a practical perspective has roots in the "progressive" model of John Dewey.

According to this theory, learners are active participants in knowledge acquisition, and engage in restructuring, manipulating, reinventing, and experimenting with knowledge to make it meaningful, organized and permanent. Learning is an internal process and influenced by the learner's personality, prior knowledge and learning goals (Davidson, 1995).

Constructivism describes a learner-centered environment where knowledge and the making of knowledge is interactive, inductive, and collaborative, where multiple perspectives are represented, and where questions are valued (Brooks and Brooks, 1993; Brown, Collins, and Duguid, 1989; Lebow, 1993). The importance of context related to knowledge and learning is emphasized. That is, knowing and the process of learning are effected by the context of the learning environment and are referred to as "situated cognition" (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). In addition, within the constructivist environment the importance of "authentic activity" (Brown, et al; Lebow, 1993) is emphasized as part of the learning process. Lebow describes "authentic activity" as experiences of personal relevance "that permit learners to practice skills in environments similar to those in which the skills will be used" (p. 9). Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) describe authentic activities as "ordinary practices of the culture" (p. 34). "Authentic activity" encourages the construction of knowledge through the use of cognitive apprenticeships, coaching, and modeling.

CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

A constructivist learning setting differs greatly from one based on the traditional model. The average traditional American classroom, whether grade school or college level, tends to resemble a one-person show with a captive but often comatose audience. Classes are usually driven by "teacher-talk" and depend heavily on textbooks for the structure of the course. Instruction in these classrooms is based on the idea that there is a fixed world of knowledge that the student must come to know. Information is divided into parts and built into a whole concept. Teachers serve as pipelines and seek to transfer their thoughts and meanings to the passive student. There is little room for student-initiated questions, independent thought or interaction between students. The goal of the learner is to regurgitate the accepted explanation or methodology expostulated by the teacher (Caprio, 1994)

Brooks & Brooks (1993) offer an interesting comparison of the visible differences between "traditional" classroom and "constructivist" classrooms. Their comparison is as follows:

In the constructivist classroom the teacher becomes a guide for the learner, providing bridging or scaffolding, helping to extend the learner's zone of proximal development. The student is encouraged to develop metacognitive skills such as reflective thinking and problem solving techniques. The independent learner is intrinsically motivated to generate, discover, build and enlarge her/his own framework of knowledge.

Becoming a constructivist teacher may prove a difficult transformation since most instructors are prepared for teaching in the traditional manner. It "requires a paradigm shift" and "requires the willing abandonment of familiar perspectives and practices and the adoption of new ones" (Brooks and Brooks, 1993, p. 25).

When educators utilize constructivist strategies, students are ecouraged to take responsibility in their own learning process (Wilson, 1996). As a result, students determine what they need to learn, manage their own learning activities, and also develop greater metacognitive skills. Students who are given the opportunity to construct their learning in relevant environments will graduate with the higher level thinking and problem solving skills that are necessary to be successful in todays world.

CONCLUSION

The constructivist view of the world as having reality only as it is understood by the learner signals a drammatic departure from theories which view the world as objective truth to be explained and accepted. This change represents a fundamental shift in the understanding of the learning relationship. It gives new status to the learner as the active constructor within the learning activity instead of being the passive respondent to externally determined educational regimins. Constructivism challenges learners to move beyond fact learning to more transportable cognitive understanding. It redefines teaching to be an exciting process of joining in the intellectual discovery of others. The constructivist teacher becomes a partner who is given the opportunity to see familiar educational vistas through new eyes and in a real sense becomes a fellow learner with the students the teacher serves.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Research, 18(1), 32-42.

Caprio, M.W. (1994). Easing into constructivism, connecting meaningful learning with student experience. Journal of College Science Teaching, 23 (4), 210-212.

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Dershem, A. (1996). Covert constructivism: an awakened understanding. [available on-line] http://education.indiana.edu/~cep/courses/p540/ad_reflexive.html

Fosnot, C. T. (1996) Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Lebow, D. (1993). Constructivist values for instructional systems design: Five principles toward a new mindset. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 4-16.

Snyder, J., Bolin, F., & Zumwalt, K. (1992). Curriculum implementation. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum. New York, NY: MacMillan Publishing Co. 402-435.

Strommen, E. & Lincoln, B. (1992). A framework for educational reform: constructivism. [available on-line] http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/k12/livetext/docs/construct.html

Wilson, Brent (1996) Constructivist Learning Environments. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.